Abstract:
Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) provide the primary global framework for countries to collaborate on managing shared environmental resources, including the world's oceans. These agreements, established under the auspices of the United Nations, define both legally binding and voluntary commitments that guide national actions toward global sustainability. A number of MEAs address ocean-related challenges such as marine biodiversity, fisheries management, pollution control, and the regulation of hazardous substances.
Key examples include the Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Ramsar and Basel Conventions, and the Minamata Convention on Mercury. However, a key governance dilemma arises because most MEAs are enforced through national mechanisms, while ocean problems often occur in the high seas?areas beyond national jurisdiction. Strengthening global coordination under MEAs is therefore crucial to ensuring sustainable ocean governance and restoring marine ecosystems that underpin human and planetary well-being.
Keywords:
Multilateral Environmental Agreements, oceans governance, Law of the Sea, marine biodiversity, pollution control, high seas, international treaties, sustainable ocean management
T
he main mechanism available under the United Nations for countries to collaborate on a broad range of global environmental challenges are international agreements and treaties on the themes related environment, development, natural resources etc. Such agreements are called "Multilateral Environmental Agreements" or MEAs. The most widely known such MEA is the Paris Agreement signed under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
MEAs are agreements between countries which take the form of legally or non legally-binding principles and recommendations (or "soft laws")which countries are obligated to consider and implement laws and regulations (or "hard laws") at the national level to solve the problem, and meeting the requirements of the global agreements.
A number of such agreements and MEAs have been signed between countries related to the theme of oceans management. These address problems of global significance, such as fisheries stock management, ocean, biodiversity, prevention of land-based pollution, marine litter, plastic waste etc.
The following is a list of global agreements related to the oceans theme.
Law of the Sea Convention
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international agreement that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities. Currently, 167 countries and the European Union are parties.
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships is the main international agreement aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from ships caused by both operational and accidental discharges. It is administered by the International Maritime Organization.
The convention regulate different types of ship-generated pollution: oil, noxious liquid substances, harmful substances in packaged form, sewage, garbage, and air pollution. MARPOL sets standards for ship design, equipment, operation, and waste management, and plays a critical role in protecting marine environments from shipping-related impacts.
The Convention on Biological Diversity, known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The convention has three main goals: the conservation of biological diversity; the sustainable use of its components; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources
The Convention links together the concepts of nature conservation and the preservation of cultural properties. It recognizes the way in which people interact with nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the balance between the two.
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands.
The Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, commonly referred to as the UN Watercourses Convention, is an international treaty, adopted by the United Nations on 21 May 1997, pertaining to the uses and conservation of all waters that cross international boundaries, including both surface and groundwater.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments and aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
The Convention was developed in response to concerns about toxic waste from industrialized countries being dumped in developing countries and countries with economies in transition, and in the minimization of hazardous waste generation.
Dramatic growth in chemicals production and trade during the past three decades had highlighted the potential risks posed by hazardous chemicals and pesticides. Countries lacking adequate infrastructure to monitor the import and use of such substances were particularly vulnerable. The Convention provides for a mandatory Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
Stockholm Convention
The Convention was developed in response to the urgent need for global action to protect human health and the environment from �POPs�E These are chemicals that are highly toxic, persistent, bioaccumulate and move long distance in the environment. The Convention seeks the elimination or restriction of production and use of all intentionally produced POPs (i.e. industrial chemicals and pesticides).
Minamata Convention
One of the latest MEAs to be promulgated, the Minamata Convention on Mercury is an international treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.
Table 1: List of MEAs related to Oceans Management
Note that a number of regional conventions and agreements also exist, covering oceans and seas management, sustainable fisheries issues, prevention of land-based sources of pollution (including marine litter and plastic waste). These center around the Mediterranean, Caribbean, Pacific and other regional seas. For example, the Barcelona Protocol (Mediterranean Action Plan) calls on its member-states to take measures to prevent, abate and eliminate pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by dumping of wastes or other matter.
Other legal frameworks that focus on oceans and marine environments include:
Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction
International Legal Framework on Freshwater Resources
International Legal Framework on Marine Biodiversity
International Legal Framework on Marine Pollution
The dilemma that the above list presents is that the MEAs are implemented by national governments, while the problems oceans face are in the "high seas"* - beyond the legal jurisdiction of most countries.
While many of environmental problems of oceans are human-induced (for example global warming) and have land-based origins (such as nutrient pollution), jurisdictional limits of a country's laws and regulations mean that issues related to high seas are ignored or are not acted upon.
A globally coordinated MEA mechanism is sorely needed for broader ocean management to build commitments that acknowledge the cyclical interdependences between our daily lives and marine environments - particularly in terms of habitat and ecosystem restoration.
Way Forward
The dilemmas highlighted above - namely, the mismatch between national implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and the transboundary or high-seas nature of ocean problems - call for both institutional and operational innovations. Solutions can be grouped under governance, science and monitoring, economic and legal mechanisms, and multi-stakeholder collaboration:
1. Strengthening global ocean governance frameworks
Develop an overarching Global Oceans Agreement or a coordinated mechanism under the UN to integrate and harmonize existing MEAs relevant to oceans (UNCLOS, CBD, Basel, etc.).
Establish a High Seas Authority or expand the mandate of the International Seabed Authority to address not only seabed mining but also biodiversity, pollution, and ecosystem health in areas beyond national jurisdiction.
Promote joint implementation mechanisms among MEAs (for example, aligning marine biodiversity goals of the CBD with pollution control goals of the Basel and Stockholm Conventions).
2. Expanding jurisdictional cooperation
Create regional management regimes for the high seas modeled after Regional Seas Programmes (such as the Barcelona or Cartagena Conventions) to ensure coordinated action across ocean basins.
Encourage transboundary marine protected areas (MPAs) and marine corridors shared among neighboring states to protect migratory species and ecosystems.
Develop mutual recognition agreements for marine enforcement and surveillance among coastal states to close enforcement gaps.
3. Enhancing monitoring, science, and data sharing
Establish a Global Marine Information System integrating satellite data, ocean observation networks, and MEA reporting systems to track compliance and detect illegal activities.
Support citizen science and community-based ocean monitoring, especially in small island and coastal developing states.
Invest in interdisciplinary ocean science diplomacy, connecting researchers and policy negotiators to bridge scientific evidence and international law.
4. Leveraging economic and legal instruments
Introduce blue carbon credits and sustainable ocean finance mechanisms to support countries protecting marine ecosystems beyond their jurisdictions.
Strengthen the use of environmental liability regimes and polluter-pays principles for activities (like shipping, deep-sea mining, and plastic pollution) that affect the high seas.
Develop incentive systems (for example, trade preferences or funding access) for countries that meet MEA ocean-related targets.
5. Building inclusive global partnerships
Encourage multi-stakeholder alliances involving governments, private sector, NGOs, and local communities in implementing MEA commitments related to oceans.
Foster capacity building and technology transfer for developing countries to help them meet MEA obligations and participate effectively in global ocean governance.
Strengthen public awareness and education on the global interdependence between land-based human activities and ocean health, linking consumer behavior to marine sustainability.
In essence, the solution lies in moving from fragmented national implementation toward integrated, cooperative global stewardship of the oceans - treating them as a shared ecological and governance space that transcends borders.
*
The high seas are the parts of the ocean that are not included in the exclusive economic zones, territorial sea or internal waters of a country. Thus, "high seas" are areas of the ocean for which no one nation has sole responsibility for management.
Comments, additions and references to the above are welcome. Please send them to the email indicated below.
This work by GDRC is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. You are free to share and adapt this piece of work for your own purposes, as long as it is appropriately cited.
More info: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
on
